Table of Contents
This chapter continues on the hard disk devices from the previous one. Here we will put partitions on those devices.
This chapter prepares you for the next chapter, where we put file systems on our partitions.
Linux requires you to create one or more partitions. The next paragraphs will explain how to create and use partitions.
A partition's geometry and size is usually defined by a starting and ending cylinder (sometimes by sector). Partitions can be of type primary (maximum four), extended (maximum one) or logical (contained within the extended partition). Each partition has a type field that contains a code. This determines the computers operating system or the partitions file system.
Table 5.1. primary, extended and logical partitions
| Partition Type | naming |
|---|---|
| Primary (max 4) | 1-4 |
| Extended (max 1) | 1-4 |
| Logical | 5- |
We saw before that hard disk devices are named /dev/hdx or /dev/sdx with x depending on the hardware configuration. Next is the partition number, starting the count at 1. Hence the four (possible) primary partitions are numbered 1 to 4. Logical partition counting always starts at 5. Thus /dev/hda2 is the second partition on the first ATA hard disk device, and /dev/hdb5 is the first logical partition on the second ATA hard disk device. Same for SCSI, /dev/sdb3 is the third partition on the second SCSI disk.
Table 5.2. Partition naming
| partition | device |
|---|---|
| /dev/hda1 | first primary partition on /dev/hda |
| /dev/hda2 | second primary or extended partition on /dev/hda |
| /dev/sda5 | first logical drive on /dev/sda |
| /dev/sdb6 | second logical on /dev/sdb |
The picture below shows two (spindle) disks with partitions. Note that an extended partition is a container holding logical drives.
In the fdisk -l example below you can see that two partitions exist on /dev/sdb. The first partition spans 31 cylinders and contains a Linux swap partition. The second partition is much bigger.
root@laika:~# fdisk -l /dev/sdb Disk /dev/sdb: 100.0 GB, 100030242816 bytes 255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 12161 cylinders Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System /dev/sdb1 1 31 248976 82 Linux swap / Solaris /dev/sdb2 32 12161 97434225 83 Linux root@laika:~#
The /proc/partitions file contains a table with major and minor number of partitioned devices, their number of blocks and the device name in /dev. Verify with /proc/devices to link the major number to the proper device.
paul@RHELv4u4:~$ cat /proc/partitions major minor #blocks name 3 0 524288 hda 3 64 734003 hdb 8 0 8388608 sda 8 1 104391 sda1 8 2 8281507 sda2 8 16 1048576 sdb 8 32 1048576 sdc 8 48 1048576 sdd 253 0 7176192 dm-0 253 1 1048576 dm-1
The major number corresponds to the device type (or driver) and can be found in /proc/devices. In this case 3 corresponds to ide and 8 to sd. The major number determines the device driver to be used with this device.
The minor number is a unique identification of an instance of this device type. The devices.txt file in the kernel tree contains a full list of major and minor numbers.
You may be interested in alternatives to fdisk like parted, cfdisk, sfdisk and gparted. This course mainly uses fdisk to partition hard disks.
parted is recommended by some Linux distributions for handling storage with gpt instead of mbr.
Below a screenshot of parted on CentOS.
[root@centos65 ~]# rpm -q parted parted-2.1-21.el6.x86_64 [root@centos65 ~]# parted /dev/sda GNU Parted 2.1 Using /dev/sda Welcome to GNU Parted! Type 'help' to view a list of commands. (parted) print Model: ATA VBOX HARDDISK (scsi) Disk /dev/sda: 42.9GB Sector size (logical/physical): 512B/512B Partition Table: msdos Number Start End Size Type File system Flags 1 1049kB 525MB 524MB primary ext4 boot 2 525MB 42.9GB 42.4GB primary lvm (parted)
In the example below, we bought a new disk for our system. After the new hardware is properly attached, you can use fdisk and parted to create the necessary partition(s). This example uses fdisk, but there is nothing wrong with using parted.
First, we check with fdisk -l whether Linux can see the new disk. Yes it does, the new disk is seen as /dev/sdb, but it does not have any partitions yet.
root@RHELv4u2:~# fdisk -l Disk /dev/sda: 12.8 GB, 12884901888 bytes 255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 1566 cylinders Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System /dev/sda1 * 1 13 104391 83 Linux /dev/sda2 14 1566 12474472+ 8e Linux LVM Disk /dev/sdb: 1073 MB, 1073741824 bytes 255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 130 cylinders Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes Disk /dev/sdb doesn't contain a valid partition table
Then we create a partition with fdisk on /dev/sdb. First we start the fdisk tool with /dev/sdb as argument. Be very very careful not to partition the wrong disk!!
root@RHELv4u2:~# fdisk /dev/sdb Device contains neither a valid DOS partition table, nor Sun, SGI... Building a new DOS disklabel. Changes will remain in memory only, until you decide to write them. After that, of course, the previous content won't be recoverable. Warning: invalid flag 0x0000 of partition table 4 will be corrected...
Inside the fdisk tool, we can issue the p command to see the current disks partition table.
Command (m for help): p Disk /dev/sdb: 1073 MB, 1073741824 bytes 255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 130 cylinders Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System
No partitions exist yet, so we issue n to create a new partition. We choose p for primary, 1 for the partition number, 1 for the start cylinder and 14 for the end cylinder.
Command (m for help): n Command action e extended p primary partition (1-4) p Partition number (1-4): 1 First cylinder (1-130, default 1): Using default value 1 Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (1-130, default 130): 14
We can now issue p again to verify our changes, but they are not yet written to disk. This means we can still cancel this operation! But it looks good, so we use w to write the changes to disk, and then quit the fdisk tool.
Command (m for help): p Disk /dev/sdb: 1073 MB, 1073741824 bytes 255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 130 cylinders Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System /dev/sdb1 1 14 112423+ 83 Linux Command (m for help): w The partition table has been altered! Calling ioctl() to re-read partition table. Syncing disks. root@RHELv4u2:~#
Let's verify again with fdisk -l to make sure reality fits our dreams. Indeed, the screenshot below now shows a partition on /dev/sdb.
root@RHELv4u2:~# fdisk -l Disk /dev/sda: 12.8 GB, 12884901888 bytes 255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 1566 cylinders Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System /dev/sda1 * 1 13 104391 83 Linux /dev/sda2 14 1566 12474472+ 8e Linux LVM Disk /dev/sdb: 1073 MB, 1073741824 bytes 255 heads, 63 sectors/track, 130 cylinders Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes Device Boot Start End Blocks Id System /dev/sdb1 1 14 112423+ 83 Linux root@RHELv4u2:~#
The partition table information (primary and extended partitions) is written in the master boot record or mbr. You can use dd to copy the mbr to a file.
This example copies the master boot record from the first SCSI hard disk.
dd if=/dev/sda of=/SCSIdisk.mbr bs=512 count=1
The same tool can also be used to wipe out all information about partitions on a disk. This example writes zeroes over the master boot record.
dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/sda bs=512 count=1
Or to wipe out the whole partition or disk.
dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/sda
Don't forget that after restoring a master boot record with dd, that you need to force the kernel to reread the partition table with partprobe. After running partprobe, the partitions can be used again.
[root@RHEL5 ~]# partprobe [root@RHEL5 ~]#
The partition table does not contain information about logical drives. So the dd backup of the mbr only works for primary and extended partitions. To backup the partition table including the logical drives, you can use sfdisk.
This example shows how to backup all partition and logical drive information to a file.
sfdisk -d /dev/sda > parttable.sda.sfdisk
The following example copies the mbr and all logical drive info from /dev/sda to /dev/sdb.
sfdisk -d /dev/sda | sfdisk /dev/sdb
gpt was developed because of the limitations of the 1980s mbr partitioning scheme (for example only four partitions can be defined, and they have a maximum size two terabytes).
Since 2010 gpt is a part of the uefi specification, but it is also used on bios systems.
Newer versions of fdisk work fine with gpt, but most production servers today (mid 2015) still have an older fdisk.. You can use parted instead.
parted is an interactive tool, just like fdisk. Type help in parted for a list of commands and options.
This screenshot shows how to start parted to manage partitions on /dev/sdb.
[root@rhel71 ~]# parted /dev/sdb
GNU Parted 3.1
Using /dev/sdb
Welcome to GNU Parted! Type 'help' to view a list of commands.
(parted)Each command also has built-in help. For example help mklabel will list all supported labels. Note that we only discussed mbr(msdos) and gpt in this book.
(parted) help mklabel
mklabel,mktable LABEL-TYPE create a new disklabel (partition table)
LABEL-TYPE is one of: aix, amiga, bsd, dvh, gpt, mac, msdos, pc98, sun, loop
(parted)(parted) mklabel msdos> Warning: The existing disk label on /dev/sdb will be destroyed and all data on this disk will be lost. Do you want to continue? Yes/No? yes (parted) mklabel gpt Warning: The existing disk label on /dev/sdb will be destroyed and all data on this disk will be lost. Do you want to continue? Yes/No? Y (parted)
Once labeled it is easy to create partitions with parted. This screenshot starts with an unpartitioned (but gpt labeled) disk.
(parted) print
Model: ATA VBOX HARDDISK (scsi)
Disk /dev/sdb: 8590MB
Sector size (logical/physical): 512B/512B
Partition Table: gpt
Disk Flags:
Number Start End Size File system Name Flags
(parted)This example shows how to create two primary partitions of equal size.
(parted) mkpart primary 0 50% Warning: The resulting partition is not properly aligned for best performance. Ignore/Cancel? I (parted) mkpart primary 50% 100% (parted)
Verify with print and exit with quit. Since parted works directly on the disk, there is no need to w(rite) like in fdisk.
(parted) print Model: ATA VBOX HARDDISK (scsi) Disk /dev/sdb: 8590MB Sector size (logical/physical): 512B/512B Partition Table: gpt Disk Flags: Number Start End Size File system Name Flags 1 17.4kB 4295MB 4295MB primary 2 4295MB 8589MB 4294MB primary (parted) quit Information: You may need to update /etc/fstab. [root@rhel71 ~]#
1. Use fdisk -l to display existing partitions and sizes.
2. Use df -h to display existing partitions and sizes.
3. Compare the output of fdisk and df.
4. Create a 200MB primary partition on a small disk.
5. Create a 400MB primary partition and two 300MB logical drives on a big disk.
6. Use df -h and fdisk -l to verify your work.
7. Compare the output again of fdisk and df. Do both commands display the new partitions ?
8. Create a backup with dd of the mbr that contains your 200MB primary partition.
9. Take a backup of the partition table containing your 400MB primary and 300MB logical drives. Make sure the logical drives are in the backup.
10. (optional) Remove all your partitions with fdisk. Then restore your backups.
1. Use fdisk -l to display existing partitions and sizes.
as root: # fdisk -l
2. Use df -h to display existing partitions and sizes.
df -h
3. Compare the output of fdisk and df.
Some partitions will be listed in both outputs (maybe /dev/sda1 or /dev/hda1).
4. Create a 200MB primary partition on a small disk.
Choose one of the disks you added (this example uses /dev/sdc). root@rhel53 ~# fdisk /dev/sdc ... Command (m for help): n Command action e extended p primary partition (1-4) p Partition number (1-4): 1 First cylinder (1-261, default 1): 1 Last cylinder or +size or +sizeM or +sizeK (1-261, default 261): +200m Command (m for help): w The partition table has been altered! Calling ioctl() to re-read partition table. Syncing disks.
5. Create a 400MB primary partition and two 300MB logical drives on a big disk.
Choose one of the disks you added (this example uses /dev/sdb)
fdisk /dev/sdb
inside fdisk : n p 1 +400m enter --- n e 2 enter enter --- n l +300m (twice)
6. Use df -h and fdisk -l to verify your work.
fdisk -l ; df -h
7. Compare the output again of fdisk and df. Do both commands display the new partitions ?
The newly created partitions are visible with fdisk.But they are not displayed by df.8. Create a backup with dd of the mbr that contains your 200MB primary partition.
dd if=/dev/sdc of=bootsector.sdc.dd count=1 bs=512
9. Take a backup of the partition table containing your 400MB primary and 300MB logical drives. Make sure the logical drives are in the backup.
sfdisk -d /dev/sdb > parttable.sdb.sfdisk